HistArch, 263; Spring, 2008; Week 1; NewSchool of Architecture & Design; Rosalie Stafford, Instructor

"NEOCLASSICAL ... ARCHITECTURE ... produced in Europe and North America from about 1750 through the first decades of the 19th century, [was] marked by the emulation of Greco-Roman forms. More than just an antique revival, neoclassicism was linked to contemporary political events. Neoclassical artists at first sought to replace the sensuality and triviality of the rococo style with a style that was governed by logic, solemn in tone, and moralizing in character. When revolutionary movements established republics in France and America, the new governments adopted neoclassicism as the style for their official art, by virtue of its association with the democracy of ancient Greece. Later, as Napoleon rose to power in France, the style was modified to serve his propagandistic needs, eventually becoming a repetitive and lifeless mannerism. With the rise of the romantic movement (romanticism), a preference for personal expression replaced an art based upon fixed, ideal values.

"The neoclassical style developed following the excavation of the ruins of the cities of Herculaneum in 1738 and Pompeii in 1748, the publication of such books as Antiquities of Athens (1762) by the English archaeologists James Stuart (1713–88) and Nicholas Revett (1720–1804), and the arrival in London (1806) of the Elgin Marbles. Extolling the 'noble simplicity and calm grandeur' of Greco-Roman art, the German art historian Johann Winckelmann urged artists to study and 'imitate' its timeless, ideal forms. His ideas found enthusiastic reception within the international circle of artists gathered about him in the 1760s in Rome.

"Before the discoveries at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Athens, only Roman classical architecture had been generally known, largely through the city views of the Italian artist Giovanni Battista Piranesi. The new finds extended architecture’s formal vocabulary, and architects began advocating buildings based on Greco-Roman models.

"The work of the Scottish architect and designer Robert Adam, who in the 1750s and ’60s redesigned a number of stately English houses (among others, Sion House, 1762–69, and Osterley Park, 1761–80), introduced the neoclassical style to Great Britain. The Adam style, as it became known, remained however somewhat rococo in its emphasis on surface ornamentation and preciosity of scale, even as it adopted the motifs of antiquity.

"In France, Claude Nicholas Ledoux (1736–1806) designed a pavilion (1771) for the comtesse du Barry at Louveciennes and a series of city gates (1785–89) for Paris — structures that are exemplars of the earlier phase of neoclassical architecture; his later works, however, consisted of projects (never executed) for an ideal city in which the designs for buildings are frequently reduced to unadorned geometric shapes. After Napoleon became emperor in 1804, his official architects Charles Percier (1764–1838) and Pierre François Léonard Fontaine (1762–1853) worked to realize his wish to remake Paris into the foremost capital of Europe by adopting the intimidating opulence of Roman imperial architecture. The Empire style in architecture is epitomized by such mammoth public works as the triumphal arches at the Carrousel du Louvre and the Champs Elysées (both 1860)—far different in spirit from the visionary work of Ledoux.

"Greek-inspired architecture in England is exemplified by such constructions as the Bank of England rotunda (1796) by Sir John Soane and the British Museum portico (1823–47) by Sir Robert Smirke (1781–1867). The Greek Revival was modified by the regency style, notable architectural examples of which are the facades designed by John Nash for Regent St. (begun 1812) in London and his Royal Pavilion at Brighton (1815–23). The neoclassical architecture of Edinburgh remained pristine, however, and earned that city the name Athens of the North. Elsewhere, neoclassical architecture is exemplified in the work of the German Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781–1841), such as the Royal Theater (1819–21) in Berlin.

"In the U.S., the earlier of two aspects of neoclassicism, the federal style, flourished between 1780 and 1820. Based on Roman antiquity, it is exemplified in the work of Charles Bulfinch (Massachusetts State House, Boston, completed 1798). The second phase was an adaptation of Greek revival style. During a trip to Paris in 1787, Thomas Jefferson had been impressed with the lucidity of Greek revival architecture and became convinced that such an ideally rational architecture was appropriate to the new American republic. His friend Benjamin Henry Latrobe introduced the style to the U.S. in his Bank of Pennsylvania (1798) and subsequently evolved a less rigid neoclassic style in his design for the nation’s Capitol (begun 1893). Jefferson’s own design for the University of Virginia (1817–25) extended the American Greek Revival style into the 19th century. ("Neoclassical Art & Architecture." Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2002. qtd in "EBSCOhost" EBSCO Industries, Inc. 2008)

Burlington's acknowledged inspiration, Palladio's Villa Rotunda (near Vicenza, circa 1550)

North front of Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire (1770; Robert Adam), based on Palladian design

"Since the Virginia builders had never seen a Roman temple, Jefferson had a plaster model for his design made by a Paris modeler.

"Seen across the valley, the Capitol's portico struck a new note of monumental grandeur so eagerly desired by the new country which subconsciously hoped to throw off colonial dependence on European fashions and find an appropriate American style. Romantic association of the new republic with that of ancient Rome heightened the appeal of antique models as a source for such a style. Thus, Jefferson realized the first temple building for practical use. He hoped by this means 'to reconcile to (his countrymen) the respect of the world and procure them its praise.' In 1799, this desire was already answered; by the Duc de Rochefoucauld-Liancourt who described the building as beyond comparison the most beautiful, the most noble, and the greatest in America." ("Virginia State Capital" http://web.dcp.ufl.edu/dbitz/virginia%20state%20capitol.html )

"An ornate building, the style is monumental, opulently decorated with elaborate multicolored marble friezes, columns, and lavish statuary, many of which portray the deities from Greek mythology. Between the columns of the theatre's front façade, there are bronze busts of many of the great composers, such as Mozart and Beethoven. The interior consists of interweaving corridors, stairwells, alcoves, and landings allowing the movement of large numbers of people and space for socializing during intermission. Rich with velvet, gold leaf, and cherubs and nymphs, the interior is characteristic of Baroque sumptuousness. The Palais Garnier's style is considered Beaux-Arts because it incorporates classical principles (symmetry in design) and exterior ornamentation." ("Palais Garnier - Wikipedia" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palais_Garnier)

Classical & Anti-Classical: The poles of expression between which movements in art inevitably oscillate.

"ROMANTICISM reached beyond the rational and Classicist ideal models to elevate medievalism and elements of art and narrative perceived to be authentically medieval, in an attempt to escape the confines of population growth, urban sprawl, and industrialism, and it also attempted to embrace the exotic, unfamiliar, and distant in modes more authentic than chinoiserie, harnessing the power of the imagination to envision and to escape." ("Romanticism" Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism?redirect=no)

Later view of Strawberry Hill, Twickenham, 25 years in the making (Horace Walpole, 1749-76)

Sir George Gilbert Scott Building, University of Glasgow (1870). See Scott, Week 2

"Gothic is a term used to describe a style of European Architecture which begin in the late twelfth century and dominated building design in Europe until the sixteenth. The wealth and power of the church at that time provided the money and the inspiration to build great churches and these are most common, though not the only, kind of Gothic building which also includes civic buildings, university buildings, hospitals, and town houses.

"The Gothic style uses certain architectural design patterns to enable the creation of soaring spaces lit by numerous large windows. Architecture before the Gothic age had used thick walls to bear the structural load of a building. An important characteristic of Gothic building was to treat only narrow portions of the walls as load-bearers, enabling the rest of the wall to be punctured by windows. Buttresses were also widely used, further reducing the need for thick walls and allowing spaces of great height to be achieved. Windows were normally pointed which enabled them to be larger and higher than curved-arch windows, thus giving more light and, with the use of stained glass, colour to the interior.

"Gothic architecture evolved through experiment and inspiration and relied upon the highest levels of skill and creativity from craftsmen. Religion was the major driving force for the masons and carvers who created these great buildings, they 'exercised their talents in the service of God. ' Their work was inspired and uplifting in itself and nineteenth century Gothic revivalists supposed that these craftsmen also enjoyed a sense of freedom and creativity, moving around the country as buildings were completed and new churches were commissioned." ("Pugin and the Gothic Revival" http://www.artscrafts.org.uk/roots/pugin.html )

"Pugin's definition of the two great rules for design defined the real nature of Gothic, and were to become the most important influence on the Arts and Crafts movement. These principles were:

"In 1836 A.W. N. Pugin published his book Contrasts. In it he used pairs of drawings to contrast buildings of the Middle Ages with buildings serving a similar purpose in the 19th century to show 'the present decay of taste'." ("A.W.N. Pugin and the Gothic Revival" http://www.victorianart.btinternet.co.uk/va-web/gothic-revival/p ugin.htm)

"Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin (1812—1852), son of the French émigré Augustus Charles Pugin, architectural draughtsman and topographical watercolourist, is arguably the greatest British architect, designer, and writer of the nineteenth century. Pugin was responsible for an enormous quantity of buildings, and also for countless beautiful designs for tiles, metalwork, furniture, wallpaper, stained glass and ceramics.

"Pugin's legacy extends far beyond his own architectural designs. He was responsible for popularizing a style and philosophy of architecture that reached into every corner of Victorian life. He influence writers like John Ruskin, and designers like William Morris. His ideas were expressed in private and public architecture and art throughout Great Britain and beyond." ("AW Pugin biography" http://www.britainexpress.com/History/bio/pugin.htm)

"Sir Charles Barry's collaborative design for the Palace of Westminster uses the Perpendicular Gothic style, which was popular during the 15th century and returned during the Gothic revival of the 19th century. Barry was himself a classical architect, but he was aided by the Gothic architect Augustus Pugin. Westminster Hall, which was built in the 11th century and survived the fire of 1834, was incorporated in Barry's design. Pugin was displeased with the result of the work, especially with the symmetrical layout designed by Barry; he famously remarked, 'All Grecian, sir; Tudor details on a classic body.'" ( "Palace of Westminster" Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster )

Victoria Tower, Westminster Palace (Sir Charles Barry & A.W. Pugin, 1840-1870)

The Oxford Museum of Natural History, a building designed by Benjamin Woodward & T. N. Deane with John Ruskin's collaboration as an experiment in modern Gothic. Ruskin hated the building, considering it too standardized. See Woodward & Deane, Week 2

"Rejection of mechanisation and standardization informed Ruskin's theories of architecture, informing his emphasis on the importance of the Medieval Gothic style: its reverence for nature and for natural forms; the supposedly free and unfettered expression of the artisans working on the construction and lavish decoration of buildings; and the organic relationship Ruskin posited between the worker and his guild, the worker and his community, between the worker and his natural environment, and between the worker and his God. Attempts in the nineteenth century to reproduce the form of gothic (its pointed arches etc) was not enough to make these buildings expressions of what Ruskin (however erroneously) saw as true gothic feeling, faith, and organicism.

"For Ruskin, the Gothic style embodied the same moral truths that he sought in great art. It expressed the meaning of architecture — as a combination of the values of strength, solidity, and aspiration; all written, as it were, in stone. For Ruskin, true Gothic architecture involved the whole community in its creation, and expressed the full range of human emotions, from the sublime effects of soaring spires to the comically ridiculous carved grotesques and gargoyles. Even its crude and 'savage' aspects were proof of 'the liberty of every workman who struck the stone; a freedom of thought, and rank in scale of being, such as no laws, no charters, no charities can secure.'

"Classical architecture, in contrast, expressed a morally vacuous repressive standardisation. Ruskin associated Classical values with modern developments, in particular with the demoralising consequences of the industrial revolution, resulting in buildings such as The Crystal Palace, which he despised as an oversized greenhouse.

"Although Ruskin wrote about architecture in many works over the course of his career, his much-anthologized essay 'The Nature of Gothic' from the second volume of The Stones of Venice (1853) is widely considered to be one of his most important and evocative discussions of his central argument." ("John Ruskin" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ruskin)

"A movement that sought to restore the medieval tradition of handicraft in reaction to the spread of mass production, originating in late 19th century Great Britain.

"Designs were based on simple forms and natural materials, as much for purposes of social refrom as for aesthetic reasons.

"In America, the movement became less an idealization of the skilled craftsperson than a democratic interest in embedding the virtues of honesty and simplicity in everyday high-quality design." ("Modernism" http://www.artsmia.org/modernism/iintro.html)

"Commissioned by William Morris [1834-1896] and designed by Philip Webb, two of the founders of the Arts and Crafts movement, Red House is a landmark in the history of domestic architecture. The garden inspired Morris’s early designs of wallpaper and fabric. Completed in 1859, Morris lived there with his wife Jane for five years.

"Red House was designed to express a set of social, architectural and cultural values drawn from history. It was Webb’s first private commission and with its garden was planned as a single entity. Morris believed that the garden should ‘clothe’ the house linking it with the countryside which then surrounded it. The house was constructed of warm red brick, under a steep red-tiled roof, with an emphasis on natural materials. The sense of space and light was a radical departure from the high Victorian style of the day and much of the interior was decorated by Morris and Webb with Rossetti and Burne-Jones." ("William Morris Society: Red House" http://www.morrissociety.org/redhouse.htm)

Rosalie Stafford (homepage lifeloom.com) rosalie_stafford@yahoo.com office hours by appointment	AR263 Spring, 2008 Friday, 2:00-4:00 pm
Syllabus History of Architecture Neoclassic to Modern